Storage

Storage is the most critical component in a database workload. Storage must always be available, scale, perform well, and guarantee consistency and durability. The same expectations and requirements that apply to traditional environments, such as virtual machines and bare metal, are also valid in container contexts managed by Kubernetes.

There are two primary methods of access to storage:

• Network – Either directly or indirectly. (Think of an NFS volume locally mounted on a host running Kubernetes.)
• Local – Directly attached to the node where a pod is running. This also includes directly attached disks on bare metal installations of Kubernetes.

Network storage, which is the most common usage pattern in Kubernetes, presents the same issues of throughput and latency that you can experience in a traditional environment. These issues can be accentuated in a shared environment, where I/O contention with several applications increases the variability of performance results.

Local storage enables shared-nothing architectures, which is more suitable for high transactional and very large database (VLDB) workloads, as it guarantees higher and more predictable performance.

Backup and recovery

Since CloudNativePG supports volume snapshots for both backup and recovery, we recommend that you also consider this aspect when you choose your storage solution, especially if you manage very large databases.

Benchmarking CloudNativePG

Before deploying the database in production, we recommend that you benchmark CloudNativePG in a controlled Kubernetes environment. Follow the guidelines in Benchmarking.

Briefly, we recommend operating at two levels:

• Measuring the performance of the underlying storage using fio, with relevant metrics for database workloads such as throughput for sequential reads, sequential writes, random reads, and random writes
• Measuring the performance of the database using pgbench, the default benchmarking tool distributed with PostgreSQL

Encryption at rest

Encryption at rest is possible with CloudNativePG. The operator delegates that to the underlying storage class. See the storage class for information about this important security feature.

Persistent Volume Claim (PVC)

The operator creates a PVC for each PostgreSQL instance, with the goal of storing the PGDATA. It then mounts it into each pod.

Additionally, it supports creating clusters with:

• A separate PVC on which to store PostgreSQL WAL, as explained in Volume for WAL
• Additional separate volumes reserved for PostgreSQL tablespaces, as explained in Tablespaces

In CloudNativePG, the volumes attached to a single PostgreSQL instance are defined as a PVC group.

Configuration via a storage class

The easiest way to configure the storage for a PostgreSQL class is to request storage of a certain size, like in the following example:

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: postgresql-storage-class
spec:
  instances: 3
  storage:
    size: 1Gi

Using the previous configuration, the generated PVCs are satisfied by the default storage class. If the target Kubernetes cluster has no default storage class, or even if you need your PVCs to be satisfied by a known storage class, you can set it into the custom resource:

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: postgresql-storage-class
spec:
  instances: 3
  storage:
    storageClass: standard
    size: 1Gi

Configuration via a PVC template

To further customize the generated PVCs, you can provide a PVC template inside the custom resource, like in the following example:

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: postgresql-pvc-template
spec:
  instances: 3

  storage:
    pvcTemplate:
      accessModes:
        - ReadWriteOnce
      resources:
        requests:
          storage: 1Gi
      storageClassName: standard
      volumeMode: Filesystem

Volume for WAL

By default, PostgreSQL stores all its data in the so-called PGDATA (a directory). One of the core directories inside PGDATA is pg_wal, which contains the log of transactional changes that occurred in the database, in the form of segment files. (pg_wal is historically known as pg_xlog in PostgreSQL.)

In most cases, having pg_wal on the same volume where PGDATA resides is fine. However, having WALs stored in a separate volume has a few benefits:

• I/O performance – By storing WAL files on different storage from PGDATA, PostgreSQL can exploit parallel I/O for WAL operations (normally sequential writes) and for data files (tables and indexes for example), thus improving vertical scalability.

• More reliability – By reserving dedicated disk space to WAL files, you can be sure that exhausting space on the PGDATA volume never interferes with WAL writing. This behavior ensures that your PostgreSQL primary is correctly shut down.

• Finer control – You can define the amount of space dedicated to both PGDATA and pg_wal, fine tune WAL configuration and checkpoints, and even use a different storage class for cost optimization.

• Better I/O monitoring – You can constantly monitor the load and disk usage on both PGDATA and pg_wal. You can also set alerts that notify you in case, for example, PGDATA requires resizing.

You can add a separate volume for WAL using the .spec.walStorage option. It follows the same rules described for the storage field and provisions a dedicated PVC. For example:

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: separate-pgwal-volume
spec:
  instances: 3
  storage:
    size: 1Gi
  walStorage:
    size: 1Gi

Volumes for tablespaces

CloudNativePG supports declarative tablespaces. You can add one or more volumes, each dedicated to a single PostgreSQL tablespace. See Tablespaces for details.

Volume expansion

Kubernetes exposes an API allowing expanding PVCs that's enabled by default. However, it needs to be supported by the underlying StorageClass.

To check if a certain StorageClass supports volume expansion, you can read the allowVolumeExpansion field for your storage class:

$ kubectl get storageclass -o jsonpath='{$.allowVolumeExpansion}' premium-storage
true

Using the volume expansion Kubernetes feature

Given the storage class supports volume expansion, you can change the size requirement of the Cluster, and the operator applies the change to every PVC.

If the StorageClass supports online volume resizing, the change is immediately applied to the pods. If the underlying storage class doesn't support that, you must delete the pod to trigger the resize.

The best way to proceed is to delete one pod at a time, starting from replicas and waiting for each pod to be back up.

Expanding PVC volumes on AKS

Currently, Azure can resize the PVC's volume without restarting the pod only on specific regions. CloudNativePG has overcome this limitation through the ENABLE_AZURE_PVC_UPDATES environment variable in the operator configuration. When set to true, CloudNativePG triggers a rolling update of the Postgres cluster.

Alternatively, you can use the following workaround to manually resize the volume in AKS.

Workaround for volume expansion on AKS

You can manually resize a PVC on AKS. As an example, suppose you have a cluster with three replicas:

$ kubectl get pods
NAME                READY   STATUS    RESTARTS   AGE
cluster-example-1   1/1     Running   0          2m37s
cluster-example-2   1/1     Running   0          2m22s
cluster-example-3   1/1     Running   0          2m10s

An Azure disk can be expanded only while in "unattached" state, as described in the Kubernetes documentation. This means that, to resize a disk used by a PostgreSQL cluster, you need to perform a manual rollout, first cordoning the node that hosts the pod using the PVC bound to the disk. This prevents the operator from re-creating the pod and immediately reattaching it to its PVC before the background disk resizing is complete.

First, edit the cluster definition, applying the new size. In this example, the new size is 2Gi.

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: cluster-example
spec:
  instances: 3

  storage:
    storageClass: default
    size: 2Gi

Assuming the cluster-example-1 pod is the cluster's primary, you can proceed with the replicas first. For example, start with cordoning the Kubernetes node that hosts the cluster-example-3 pod:

kubectl cordon <node of cluster-example-3>

Then delete the cluster-example-3 pod:

$ kubectl delete pod/cluster-example-3

Run the following command:

kubectl get pvc -w -o=jsonpath='{.status.conditions[].message}' cluster-example-3

Wait until you see the following output:

Waiting for user to (re-)start a Pod to finish file system resize of volume on node.

Then, you can uncordon the node:

kubectl uncordon <node of cluster-example-3>

Wait for the pod to be re-created correctly and get in a "Running and Ready" state:

kubectl get pods -w cluster-example-3
cluster-example-3   0/1     Init:0/1   0          12m
cluster-example-3   1/1     Running   0          12m

Verify the PVC expansion by running the following command, which returns 2Gi as configured:

kubectl get pvc cluster-example-3 -o=jsonpath='{.status.capacity.storage}'

You can repeat these steps for the remaining pods.

Re-creating storage

If the storage class doesn't support volume expansion, you can still regenerate your cluster on different PVCs. Allocate new PVCs with increased storage and then move the database there. This operation is feasible only when the cluster contains more than one node.

While you do that, you need to prevent the operator from changing the existing PVC by disabling the resizeInUseVolumes flag, like in the following example:

apiVersion: postgresql.cnpg.io/v1
kind: Cluster
metadata:
  name: postgresql-pvc-template
spec:
  instances: 3

  storage:
    storageClass: standard
    size: 1Gi
    resizeInUseVolumes: False

To move the entire cluster to a different storage area, you need to re-create all the PVCs and all the pods. Suppose you have a cluster with three replicas, like in the following example:

$ kubectl get pods
NAME                READY   STATUS    RESTARTS   AGE
cluster-example-1   1/1     Running   0          2m37s
cluster-example-2   1/1     Running   0          2m22s
cluster-example-3   1/1     Running   0          2m10s

To re-create the cluster using different PVCs, you can edit the cluster definition to disable resizeInUseVolumes. Then re-create every instance in a different PVC.

For example, re-create the storage for cluster-example-3:

$ kubectl delete pvc/cluster-example-3 pod/cluster-example-3

For example, if a PVC dedicated to WAL storage is present:

$ kubectl delete pvc/cluster-example-3 pvc/cluster-example-3-wal pod/cluster-example-3

Having done that, the operator orchestrates creating another replica with a resized PVC:

$ kubectl get pods
NAME                           READY   STATUS      RESTARTS   AGE
cluster-example-1              1/1     Running     0          5m58s
cluster-example-2              1/1     Running     0          5m43s
cluster-example-4-join-v2      0/1     Completed   0          17s
cluster-example-4              1/1     Running     0          10s

Static provisioning of persistent volumes

CloudNativePG was designed to work with dynamic volume provisioning. This capability allows storage volumes to be created on demand when requested by users by way of storage classes and PVC templates. See Re-creating storage.

However, in some cases, Kubernetes administrators prefer to manually create storage volumes and then create the related PersistentVolume objects for their representation inside the Kubernetes cluster. This is also known as pre-provisioning of volumes.

To use a pre-provisioned volume in CloudNativePG:

1. Manually create the volume outside Kubernetes.
2. Create the PersistentVolume object to match this volume using the correct parameters as required by the actual CSI driver (that is, volumeHandle, fsType, storageClassName, and so on).
3. Create the Postgres Cluster using, for each storage section, a coherent pvcTemplate section that can help Kubernetes match the PersistentVolume and enable CloudNativePG to create the needed PersistentVolumeClaim.

Block storage considerations (Ceph/ Longhorn)

Most block storage solutions in Kubernetes recommend having multiple replicas of a volume to improve resiliency. This works well for workloads that don't have resiliency built into the application. However, CloudNativePG has this resiliency built directly into the Postgres Cluster through the number of instances and the persistent volumes that are attached to them.

In these cases, it makes sense to define the storage class used by the Postgres clusters as one replica. By having additional replicas defined in the storage solution (like Longhorn and Ceph), you might incur what's known as write amplification, unnecessarily increasing disk I/O and space used.